The followings are some notes disseminated on periodical basis willingly in regards to PEPC Exam for Civil Engineering paper. Tips Update: The technical papers are far from the actual exercise in weighing your ability as a great engineer with in-depth knowledge in various disciplines and good in troubleshooting technical issues; instead it is a true test to see if you are able to perform accordingly and diligently as a chartered engineer. I was wrong for I actually think the evaluation is something similar to ICE format which emphasizes on trouble shooting as a sound civil engineer. Not in this case and not within the provided time limit. Therefore, it is best for all senior engineers to prepare themselves with the basic of engineering design which can be executed manually. The drawbacks for many experienced engineers in this exam will be the level of complacent we have enjoyed utilizing automated software in our daily routine work. Some lucky ones who were stuck with Microsoft Excel design spreadsheet benefited a lot by making various cross referencing to standard specification or code of practices; while software operators are less fortunate where most of the value are available or set to default. In order to excel in this exam, you have to go back to the basic; manual calculation and start to understand how values affect the calculation or the choice of values to be use in design. What are the possible questions for technical papers? For Paper 1, the question are usually straight forward by using a single formula or the most three formulas to generate an answer. Apart from that, the question involves normative referencing between tables or illustrations within code of practices. Each question should be answered below 3 minutes average and it is best to predict or spot question which requires you to calculate within a time period of 5 minutes. For some reasons, certain objective questions are statements in regards to code or practice or standard specifications which can be answered within 30 seconds, and therefore i kindly reckon the longest question would be around 4 to 5 minutes for a full calculation. As for Paper 2, the questions would involved design works. Each question will allow you 40 minutes or so to complete the main question and subsequent sub-questions. In this case, try to do exercise involving design work which will take you around 60 minutes to complete. The gist to such recommendation is due to your slow speed in making cross referencing. When prepping for Paper 2, always try to time the allowance you have to make cross referencing as you continue practicing answered fresh graduate level of questions. During 2016 exam, most of Paper 2 questions involved geotechnical engineering and soil mechanics, and remainings are on theory of structures and reinforced concrete design. For 2017, it comes as a surprised where there is only 1 geotechnical question, 2 questions combining theory of structure and reinforced concrete design as well as 2 civil works questions (sewerage and water reticulation, if i recall correctly). The geotechnical question was divided into two sub-questions; earthwork process - cut and fill, and bored pile rock socket calculation. It is surprising that questions for theory of structure and reinforced concrete design are something from your third year and fourth year degree program. You don't need to bring a lot of reference books and codes of practice, it is sufficient to bring what you inherited from your degree program; nevertheless, it is important your you to mark your processes in designing based on the section of the codes of practice. |
PEPC Exam - Civil Engineering Paper
Theory of Structure - Questions
Most of the time, some of the basics or fundamentals in regard to theory of structure will be tested and gauged in both objective and subjective paper. For objective paper, most of the questions require you to demonstrate understanding and solve simple equations and key concepts. As for key concept, it is always about the likely shape of a diagram or a graph correspond to the question. Usually objective paper requires an efficiency of answering each question in 2.5 minutes. Hence, all possible questions are those questions which require around 5 minutes without proper training or skill. The following paper is the subjective paper. If theory structure is one of the main questions, it evolves around a few other sub-questions, typically around 3 to 4 sub-questions which are part of the questions or decision which requires interpretation or justification. The time required to finish this question is around 30 to 40 minutes with great efficiency and the list of possible questions shall be questions which require around 30 minutes for the main question and around 10 minutes per sub-question without great efficiency. If you need time to refer to books or any other reference, it is safe to project the possible questions require you around 1 hour to complete. So let us go through the possible questions based on typical chapters in theory of structure reference book. In this case, we only discuss determinate structures since this is the core to manual calculation where structure is required to stay in equilibrium. For determinate structure, vectorial sum of forces is assumed as zero and the sum of moments reaction is also zero. A structure which is indeterminate means the overall static equilibrium equations are not sufficient in determining internal forces and reactions. Determinate Structures Principal of Statics This is the main chapter which requires you to demonstrate your basic understanding about type of forces and value of each forces in different planar or axis which may be related to loads and actions in BS EN 1991. Apart from that, you are required to understand some moment diagrams and the concept of triangle of forces, the free body diagram and principle of superposition. This chapter is contribute mostly to the objective questions and possible independent part or sub-question for subjective questions. Statically determinate pin-jointed frames This is among the favorite to pop out in both objective (simple symmetrical truss) and subjective (relatively simple but non-symmetrical truss) paper where a simple truss requires determination of forces at certain node(s). In this case, it is important to understand the sign convention before starting the analysis. One good tip for candidates is to get familiar with basic truss system so that it would be easy to assign the direction of internal (tensile & compressive) force. There are several methods of analysis which are quite common such as; method of resolution at the nodes, method of sections, method of force coefficients, and method of substitution of members. Elements in flexure This particular chapter can be considered as the core to most objective and subjective questions. It involved fundamentals in sketching applied loading, load intensity diagram, shear force diagram, and bending moment diagram. Candidates need to understand the relationship of these diagram and how these are calculated or generated involving beams and rigid frames. Elastic deformation After candidate manage to generate all the above-mentioned diagrams, in certain sub-questions, candidate is required to sketch the deformation or deflection of simple beam or rigid frame using Macaulay's method, virtual work (unit-load) method, conjugate beam method. Pin-jointed frame is one of the classic question in subjective paper, therefore candidate should well-versed with this particular types of frame and continuous exercise make you familiarized with steps and will expedite your calculation. Influence lines Another alternative to possible subjective question with less sub-questions is the influence line which involves some movements of load(s) throughout the structure such as bridge and cranes and the determination of the maximum design force in the members. This method involves trial and error during positioning of load(s). The only way to stay sharp and expedite your calculation would be the familiarization of shapes and diagrams for various type of structural beam or frames. At times, sub-questions will require you to only sketch the shape without specifying the value (in case of independent and non-calculation sub-questions). Apart from that, you have to be good in dissecting isometric structure and convert it into simplified frame with proper type of support(s). Space frames Instead of limiting the structure calculation in 2 axes, there is high possibility, subjective questions and its sub-questions may require you to do analysis involving structure in 3 dimension. Candidate should be good in trigonometry. Indeterminate Structures Static Indeterminacy Virtual work methods Indeterminate pin-jointed frames Conjugate beam methods Influence lines Elastic Center and column analogy methods Moment distribution methods Model analysis Plastic analysis and design Elastic Instability Elastic-plastic analysis |
BS1377 Methods of Test for Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes
BS1277: 1990 consist of 9 Parts: Part 1: General requirements and sample preparation; Part 2: Classification tests; Part 3: Chemical and electro-chemical tests; Part 4: Compaction-related tests; Part 5: Compressibility, permeability and durability tests; Part 6: Consolidation and permeability tests in hydraulic cells and with pore pressure measurement; Part 7: Shear strength tests (total stress); Part 8: Shear strength tests (effective stress); Part 9: In-situ tests.
3.1.1 Part 1. General requirements and sample preparation Part 1 of this standard contains general information relating to the tests, common calibration and specification requirements and general requirements for testing laboratories and field work. It also includes details of procedures for the preparation of disturbed and undisturbed samples, where these are common to more than one type of test.
3.1.2 Part 2. Classification Tests Part 2 describes tests for the classification of soils according to moisture content, Atterberg limits, density, particle density and particle size distribution. No changes in principle have been made in the test procedures, but some additional tests are included. In the preparation of cohesive soils for testing, the requirement of using the soil in its natural state, without drying, has been introduced. The main additions and amendments are as follows. a) Moisture content. Determination of the saturation moisture content of chalk has been added. The alcohol method and the sand bath method have been deleted. b) Liquid limits. A one-point cone penetration test has been added. c) Shrinkage limit. This is an addition, and two procedures are given. d) Bulk density. Determination by direct measurement has been added. e) Particle density (previously specific gravity). The pyknometer jar method has been reintroduced as a site f) Particle size distribution (sedimentation). Procedures have been rationalized and amended where necessary. Pretreatment is not now a requirement. Summary of Part 2 Determination of moisture content: soil is dry when water is removed not more than 110⁰C using oven-drying method (105-110⁰C). The liquid limit is the empirically established moisture content at which a soil passes from the liquid state to the plastic state. It provides a means of classifying a soil, especially when the plastic limit (see clause 5) is also known. Two main types of test are specified. The first is the cone penetrometer method, which is fundamentally more satisfactory than the alternative because it is essentially a static test depending on soil shear strength. It is also easier to perform and gives more reproducible results. The second is the much earlier Casagrande type of test which has been used for many years as a basis for soil classification and correlation of engineering properties. This test introduces dynamic effects and is more susceptible to discrepancies between operators. Wherever possible the test shall be carried out on soil in its natural state. With many clay soils it is practicable and shall be permissible to remove by hand any coarse particles present. The plastic limit is the empirically established moisture content at which a soil becomes too dry to be plastic. It is used together with the liquid limit to determine the plasticity index which when plotted against the liquid limit on the plasticity chart (see BS 5930) provides a means of classifying cohesive soils. It is recognized that the results are subject to the judgment of the operator, and that some variability in results will occur. Shrinkage due to drying is significant in clays but less so in silts and sands. These tests enable the shrinkage limit, ws, of clays to be determined, i.e. the moisture content below which a clay ceases to shrink. They also provide ways of quantifying the amount of shrinkage likely to be experienced by clays, in terms of the shrinkage ratio, volumetric shrinkage and linear shrinkage. These factors are also relevant to the converse condition of expansion due to wetting. Three types of test are specified. The first is the definitive method in which volumetric measurements are made on a cylindrical specimen, usually of undisturbed soil, as it is allowed to dry. The second is the subsidiary method, in which disturbed soil is mixed to a paste with water to form a small pat for the same purpose. Both procedures enable the shrinkage limit of the soil, the shrinkage ratio, and the volumetric shrinkage for a given change of moisture content, to be determined. In the third test only the total linear shrinkage of a soil paste is measured. The second and third procedures are carried out on the fraction of the soil sample passing a 425 μm test sieve. This method covers the determination of the linear shrinkage of the fraction of a soil sample passing a 425 μm test sieve from linear measurements on a bar of soil. In this standard, density is expressed in terms of mass density. The bulk density of a soil, r, is the mass per unit volume of the soil deposit including any water it contains. The dry density, rd, is the mass of dry soil contained in a unit volume. Both are expressed in Mg/m3, which is numerically the same as g/cm3. Three methods are specified. The first applies to soils that can be formed into a regular geometric shape (linear measurement method), the volume of which can be calculated from linear measurements. In the second the volume of the specimen is determined by weighing it submerged in water (immersion in water method). In the third the volume is measured by displacement of water (water displacement method). In this standard the term particle density is used instead of the term specific gravity, which was used in previous editions of this standard, to comply with current usage in other standards. It is denoted by the symbol rs. In this standard particle density is quoted in Mg/m3, which is numerically equal to the specific gravity. Three methods are described. The first is a gas jar method suitable for most soils including those containing gravel-sized particles. The second is the small pyknometer method which is the definitive method for soils consisting of clay, silt and sand-sized particles. The third is a large pyknometer method, suitable for soils containing particles up to medium gravel size. The last is less accurate than the other two and is more suitable as a site test or when a result of lower accuracy is acceptable. Determination of particle size distribution. Two methods of sieving are specified. Wet sieving is the definitive method applicable to essentially cohesionless soils. Dry sieving is suitable only for soils containing insignificant quantities of silt and clay. Two methods of determining the size distribution of fine particles down to the clay size by sedimentation are specified, namely the pipette method and the hydrometer method, in both of which the density of the soil suspension at various intervals is measured. Combined sieving and sedimentation procedures enable a continuous particle size distribution curve of a soil to be plotted from the size of the coarsest particles down to the clay size.
3.1.3 Part 3. Chemical and electro-chemical Test Part 3 describes chemical tests on soils and on water. Existing test procedures have been retained, with some modification, and additional tests have been included for the determination of the following. a) Loss on ignition; b) sulphate content of soil and ground water; c) Carbonate content; d) Chloride content; e) Total dissolved solids; f) pH value; g) resistivity; h) redox potential Tests have also been included for the assessment of the corrosivity of soils; these are the determination of the electrical resistivity and of the redox potential. In-situ methods of these two tests are given in Part 9.
3.1.4 Part 4. Compaction-related test Part 4 describes those tests that refer in some way to the compaction of soils. These include existing procedures for determining compaction parameters; additional tests for measurement of the limiting densities of non-cohesive soils; and tests which are related to the control and behaviour of soil placed in-situ as fill, comprising the CBR test and two procedures which have been added. These are the moisture condition test, and the chalk crushing value test, both of which require use of the same apparatus. Attention has been given to several methods of sample preparation appropriate to different soil types prior to compaction tests and the compaction of samples for the CBR test. Summary of Part 4 Determining dry density and moisture content relationship: For a given degree of compaction of a given cohesive soil there is an optimum moisture content at which the dry density obtained reaches a maximum value. For cohesionless soils optimum moisture content might be difficult to define. The objective of the tests described in this clause is to obtain relationships between compacted dry density and soil moisture content, using two magnitudes of manual compactive effort, or compaction by vibration. Three types of compaction test are described, each with procedural variations related to the nature of the soil. The first is the light manual compaction test in which a 2.5 kg rammer is used. The second is the heavy manual compaction test which is similar but gives a much greater degree of compaction by using a 4.5 kg rammer with a greater drop on thinner layers of soil. If there is a limited amount of particles up to 37.5 mm size, equivalent tests are carried out in the larger California Bearing Ratio (CBR) mould. NOTE 2: If more than 30 % of material is retained on a 20 mm test sieve the material is too coarse to be tested. The third type of test makes use of a vibrating hammer, and is intended mainly for granular soils passing a 37.5 mm test sieve, with no more than 30 % retained on a 20 mm test sieve. The soil is compacted into a CBR mould. NOTE 1: The amount of water to be mixed with soil at the commencement of the test will vary with the type of soil under test. In general, with sandy and gravelly soils a moisture content of 4 % to 6 % would be suitable, while with cohesive soils a moisture content about 8 % to 10 % below the plastic limit of the soil would usually be suitable. Determination of maximum and minimum dry densities for granular soil: An indication of the state of compaction of a cohesionless (free-draining) soil is obtained by relating its dry density to its maximum and minimum possible densities (the limiting densities). The tests described in this section enable these parameters to be determined for cohesionless soils. Two tests are described for the determination of maximum density, one for sands and one for gravelly soils. In both tests the soil is compacted under water with a vibrating hammer. Determination of the moisture condition value: The procedures cover the determination of the moisture condition value (MCV) of a sample of soil and the determination of the variation of MCV with changing moisture content. A rapid procedure for assessing whether or not a sample of soil is stronger than a precalibrated standard is also included. Determination of the chalk crushing value: The chalk crushing value (CCV) is determined by using the chalk impact crushing test, which measures the rate at which a sample of chalk lumps crushes under impacts from a free-falling rammer. The chalk crushing value can be used, together with the saturation moisture content of the intact chalk lumps (see 3.3 of BS 1377-2:1990), to classify chalk in relation to its behaviour as a freshly placed fill material. Determination of the California Bearing Ratio (CBR): Principle. This method covers the laboratory determination of the California Bearing Ration (CBR) of a compacted or undisturbed sample of soil. The principle is to determine the relationship between force and penetration when a cylindrical plunger of a standard cross-sectional area is made to penetrate the soil at a given rate. At certain values of penetration the ratio of the applied force to a standard force, expressed as a percentage, is defined as the California Bearing Ratio (CBR).
3.1.5 Part 5. Compressibility, permeability and durability tests Part 5 describes test procedures in which the presence or drainage or flow of water within the pore spaces of the soil is the significant factor, but without requirinq the measurement of pore water pressure. These include the one-dimensional oedometer consolidation test, which incorporates some additional requirements. Tests for determining the swelling and collapsing characteristics have been added. Further additional test procedures are as follows. a) Determination of soil permeability (constant-head method). b) Determination of erodibility and dispersive characteristics of fine-grained soils. c) Determination of potential frost heave for which reference is made to BS 812-124. Summary of Part 5 Determination of the one-dimensional consolidation properties: This method covers the determination of the magnitude and rate of the consolidation of a saturated or near-saturated specimen of soil (see note 1) in the form of a disc confined laterally, subjected to vertical axial pressure, and allowed to drain freely from the top and bottom surfaces. The method is concerned mainly with the primary consolidation phase, but it can also be used to determine secondary compression characteristics. The compressibility characteristics may be illustrated by plotting the compression of the specimen as ordinate on a linear scale against the corresponding applied pressure p (in kP/Pa), as abscissa on a logarithmic scale. Other information made available are; Coefficient of consolidation and Coefficient of secondary compression. Determination of swelling and collapse characteristics: The tests comprise the following; a) Measurement of swelling pressure. For a soil which has a swelling capability when allowed access to water, the swelling pressure, ps, is the vertical pressure on the specimen in an oedometer ring required to prevent it swelling. The swelling pressure is usually the starting point and finishing point for the series of pressures applied to a soil of this type in a consolidation test. b) Measurement of swelling. This test enables the swelling characteristics of a laterally confined soil specimen to be measured when it is unloaded from the swelling pressure in the presence of water. c) Measurement of settlement on saturation. In this test the amount by which an unsaturated laterally confined specimen settles due to structural collapse on the addition of water is determined. Determination of permeability by the constant-head method: The permeability of a soil is a measure of its capacity to allow the flow of water through the pore spaces between solid particles. The degree of permeability is determined by applying a hydraulic pressure gradient in a sample of saturated soil and measuring the consequent rate of flow. The coefficient of permeability is expressed as a velocity. Permeability tests on undisturbed samples using triaxial cell and hydraulic consolidation cell apparatus are described in BS 1377-6:1990. The test procedure described in this clause covers the determination of the coefficient of permeability using a constant-head permeameter in which the flow of water through the sample is laminar. The volume of water passing through the soil in a known time is measured, and the hydraulic gradient is measured using manometer tubes. Determination of dispersibility: Certain fine-grained soils that are highly erodible are referred to as dispersive soils. Dispersive soils cannot be identified by means of conventional soil classification tests, but the qualitative tests described below enable them to be recognized. However, it does not follow that soils classified by these tests as non-dispersive are not susceptible to erosion in some circumstances. These methods are not applicable to soils with a clay content of less than 10 % and with a plasticity index less than or equal to 4. Three tests are described as follows; a) The pinhole test, in which the flow of water under a high hydraulic gradient through a cavity in the soil is reproduced. b) The crumb test, in which the behaviour of crumbs of soil in a static dilute sodium hydroxide solution is observed. c) The dispersion method (double hydrometer test), in which the extent of natural dispersion of clay particles is compared with that obtained with the use of standard chemical and mechanical dispersion. 3.1.6 Part 6. Consolidation and permeability test on hydraulic cells and with pore pressure measurement Part 6 is a major addition to this standard. It describes tests for the determination of consolidation and permeability parameters using equipment in which the measurement of pore water pressure is an essential feature. These comprise the following. a) Determination of consolidation properties in a hydraulic consolidation cell. For samples of large diameter, either vertical or horizontal (radial) drainage can be used. b) Determination of consolidation properties in a triaxial cell under isotropic conditions. Summary of Part 6 Two types of equipment are used: (a) hydraulically loaded one-dimensional consolidation cell; (b) a triaxial consolidation cell. Consolidation or triaxial cells of large diameter enable large specimens to be tested so that some account can be taken of the effects of the soil fabric. Definitions: Diaphragm pressure of a hydraulic - consolidation cell the pressure applied to the fluid above the flexible loading diaphragm. Applied total stress - the mean pressure actually transmitted to thesurface of the specimen. Free strain loading - application of a uniformly distributed pressure to the surface of the specimen from the flexible diaphragm. Equal strain loading - application of pressure to the surface of the specimen through a rigid disc so that the surface always remains plane. Pore pressure ratio - the ratio of the incremental change in pore pressure to the applied increment of vertical stress when drainage is not allowed. Cell pressure (σ3) - the pressure of the cell fluid which applies isotropic stress to the specimen in a triaxial cell. Back pressure (ub) - pressure applied directly to the pore fluid in the specimen voids. Effective cell pressure - the difference between the cell pressure and pore water pressure. Effective consolidation pressure (σ’3 ) - the difference between the cell pressure and the back pressure against which the pore fluid drains during the consolidation stage. Pore pressure coefficients A and B - changes in total stresses applied to a specimen when no drainage is permitted produces changes in the pore pressure in accordance with the equation. Determination of consolidation properties using a hydraulic cell - These procedures cover the determination of the magnitudes and rates of consolidation of soil specimens of relatively low permeability using hydraulically loaded apparatus. They provide a convenient means of testing large specimens, and enable drainage in either the horizontal or vertical directions to be investigated. The specimen is in the form of a cylinder confined laterally, subjected to vertical axial pressure applied hydraulically. Types of test. In this type of cell, pressure may be applied to the surface of the specimen either directly from the flexible diaphragm (giving a uniform stress distribution, the “free strain” condition), or through a rigid loading plate which ensures that the top surface remains plane (the “equal strain” condition). With either type of loading the following drainage conditions are possible. The various configurations are indicated diagrammatically in Figure 1, as follows: (a) vertical drainage to the top surface only, with measurement of pore pressure at the centre of the base; (b) vertical drainage to both top and bottom surfaces; (c) radial drainage outwards to the periphery only, with measurement of pore pressure at the centre of the base; (d) radial drainage inwards to a central drain with measurement of pore pressure at one or more points off centre. Each method requires its own curve-fitting procedure and multiplying factors for deriving the relevant coefficient of consolidation. The factors also depend on whether data are derived from pore pressure measurements at a single point, or from “average” measurements (volume change or settlement) for the specimen as a whole. Determination of permeability in a hydraulic consolidation cell - This method covers the measurement of the coefficient of permeability of a laterally confined specimen of soil under a known vertical effective stress, and under the application of a back pressure. The volume of water passing through the soil in a known time, and under a constant hydraulic gradient, is measured. The direction of flow may be either vertical (parallel to the specimen axis) or horizontal (radially outwards or inwards). The method is suitable for soils of low and intermediate permeability. Types of test. Two types of permeability test are described. The first (4.8.3) is for the determination of permeability in the vertical direction, in which water is made to flow vertically downwards through the specimen. The second (4.8.4) is for the determination of horizontal permeability in which water is made to flow radially, either outwards from the centre to the periphery or inwards to the centre. Determination of isotropic consolidation properties using a triaxial cell - These procedures cover the determination of the magnitude and rate of consolidation of soil specimens when subjected to isotropic stress conditions in a triaxial cell. In this test the soil specimen is subjected to increments of equal all-round confining pressure, i.e. s1 = s2 = s3. Each pressure increment is held constant until virtually all the excess pore pressure due to that increment has dissipated. During this process water drains out from one end of the specimen, and its volume is measured. At the same time the pore water pressure at the other (undrained) end is monitored. These measurements are used for the determination of the relationship between voids ratio and effective isotropic stress for three-dimensional consolidation, and for the calculation of volumetric coefficients of consolidation and compressibility. The usual arrangement is for drainage to take place vertically upwards to the top face, while pore pressure is measured at the base. Determination of permeability in a triaxial cell - This method covers the measurement of the coefficient of permeability of a cylindrical specimen of soil in the triaxial apparatus under known conditions of effective stress, and under the application of a back pressure. The volume of water passing through the soil in a known time, and under a constant hydraulic gradient, is measured. The method is suitable for soils of low and intermediate permeability.
3.1.7 Part 7. Shear strength test (total stress) Part 7 describes methods for the determination of the shear strength of soils in terms of total stress, or (in the case of drained direct shear tests) in terms of effective stress when equal to total stress. A test for determining unconfined compressive strength using standard laboratory apparatus has been added. For very soft soils the laboratory vane test has been added. Direct shear tests using the shear box and the ring shear apparatus have been added, and include the determination of drained and drained-residual shear strength parameters. The triaxial compression test procedure has been augmented by the addition of a multi-stage method which is appropriate under certain conditions. Definitions: Unconfined compression strength (qu) the compressive strength at failure of a specimen subjected to uniaxial (unconfined) compression. Sensitivity - the ratio of the undrained shear strength of an undisturbed clay specimen to that of the same specimen after remoulding at the same moisture content. Vane shear strength (τv) the shear strength of a soil as determined by applying a torque in the vane shear test. Undrained shear strength (Cu) the shear strength of a soil under undrained conditions, before drainage of water due to application of stress can take place. Residual strength - the shear strength which a soil can maintain when subjected to large shear displacement after the peak strength has been mobilized. Summary of Part 7 Direct shear tests (clauses 3 to 6) comprise: (a) laboratory vane test procedure, for soft to firm cohesive soils; (b) small shearbox procedures for determining the angle of shear resistance of cohesionless soils, and the drained peak and residual shear strength parameters of cohesive soils; (c) large shearbox procedures for determining similar properties of gravelly soils, or on large block samples; (d) small ring shear procedure for drained residual shear strength parameters of remoulded clays. Compression tests (clauses 7 to 9) comprise: (e) unconfined compression test procedure, in the laboratory and in a portable apparatus for use on site; (f) triaxial compression test procedure from which the undrained shear strength is derived; (g) triaxial compression test procedure in several stages on one specimen, for deriving undrained shear strength. The unconfined compression test procedure using portable apparatus, and the single-stage triaxial compression test, are similar in principle to those given in the 1975 Standard. All the other procedures are new additions. Determination of shear strength by the laboratory vane method - This method covers the measurement of the shear strength of a sample of soft to firm cohesive soil without having to remove it from its container or sampling tube. The sample therefore does not suffer disturbance due to preparation of a test specimen. The method may be used for soils that are too soft or too sensitive to enable a satisfactory compression test specimen to be prepared. The shear strength of the remoulded soil, and hence the sensitivity, can also be determined. Determination of shear strength by direct shear (small shearbox apparatus) - In the direct shear test a square prism of soil is laterally restrained and sheared along a mechanically induced horizontal plane while subjected to a pressure applied normal to that plane. The shearing resistance offered by the soil as one portion is made to slide on the other is measured at regular intervals of displacement. Failure occurs when the shearing resistance reaches the maximum value which the soil can sustain. By carrying out tests on a set of (usually three) similar specimens of the same soil under different normal pressures, the relationship between measured shear stress at failure and normal applied stress is obtained. The shearbox apparatus can be used only for carrying out drained tests for the determination of effective shear strength parameters. There is no control of drainage and the procedure cannot be used for undrained tests. The test specimen is consolidated under a vertical normal load until the primary consolidation is completed. It is then sheared at a rate of displacement that is slow enough to prevent development of excess pore pressures. Test data enable the effective shear strength parameters c’ and ø’ to be derived. The residual shear strength parameters c’R, ø’R can be obtained by extending the tests to give large cumulative displacements by reversals and re-shearing. Determination of shear strength by direct shear (large shearbox apparatus) - The principle of this method is the same as that described in clause 4 for the small shearbox apparatus. The large shearbox referred to in this standard is designed for carrying out tests on soil specimens up to 305 mm square and 150 mm high. Determination of residual strength using the small ring shear apparatus - The ring shear apparatus enables an annular specimen of remoulded cohesive soil of 5 mm thickness with internal and external diameters of 70 mm and 100 mm to be subjected to rotational shear while subjected to a vertical stress. In this test it is assumed that c’r is zero. Determination of the unconfined compressive strength - In the unconfined compression test a cylindrical specimen of cohesive soil is subjected to a steadily increasing axial compression until failure occurs. The axial force is the only force applied to the specimen. The test is normally carried out on 38 mm diameter specimens, but can also be performed on specimens up to 100 mm diameter. The test provides an immediate approximate value of the compressive strength of the soil, either in the undisturbed or the remoulded condition, it is carried out within a short enough time to ensure that no drainage of water is permitted into or out of the specimen. It is suitable only for saturated, non-fissured cohesive soils. Failure criteria. The maximum value of the compressive force per unit area which the specimen can sustain is referred to as the unconfined compressive strength of the soil. In very plastic soils in which the axial stress does not readily reach a maximum value, an axial strain of 20 % is used as the criterion of failure. Types of test. Two methods are given for determining the unconfined compressive strength. The first is the definitive method using a load frame, in which specimens of any suitable diameter can be tested. The second makes use of an autographic apparatus. Determination of the undrained shear strength in triaxial compression without measurement of pore pressure (definitive method) - This method covers the determination of the undrained strength of a specimen of cohesive soil when it is subjected to a constant confining pressure and to strain-controlled axial loading, when no change in total moisture content is allowed. Tests are usually carried out on a set of similar specimens, subjected to different confining pressures. The test is carried out in the triaxial apparatus on specimens in the form of right cylinders of height approximately equal to twice the diameter. Specimen diameters range from 38 mm to about 110 mm. Determination of the undrained shear strength in triaxial compression with multistage loading and without measurement of pore pressure - This method covers the determination of the undrained compressive strength of a specimen of cohesive soil when it is subjected to a constant all-round confining pressure and to strain-controlled axial loading, when no change in total moisture content is allowed. The method provides a means of determining the relationship between undrained shear strength and confining pressure from a single specimen. The method shall not be used for brittle or sensitive soils. 3.1.8 Part 8. Shear strength test (effective stress) Part 8 is a major addition to this standard, namely the determination of effective stress shear strength parameters in the consolidated-drained and consolidated-undrained triaxial compression tests. Definitions: deviator stress - the difference between the major and minor principal stresses, i.e. the principal stress difference in a triaxial test. Strain (Ł) (cumulative strain) - the change in dimension, expressed as a ratio or a percentage, of the initial reference dimension. Cell pressure - the pressure of the cell fluid which applies isotropic stress to the specimen. In axial compression tests, it is the total minor principal stress, denoted by σ3. Pore pressure (u) - the pressure of the water in the voids between solid particles as measured in the triaxial test. Back pressure (ub) - pressure applied directly to the pore fluid in the specimen voids. Effective confining pressure - the difference between the cell pressure and the pore water pressure. Effective consolidation pressure - the difference between the cell pressure and the back pressure against which the pore fluid drains during the consolidation stage. Failure - criteria for the stress condition at failure are as follows: (a) maximum deviator stress, i.e. maximum; principal stress difference; (b) maximum effective principal stress ratio; (c) when shearing continues at constant pore pressure (undrained) or with no change in volume (drained), in both cases at constant shear stress. Shear strength - the shear stress on the failure plane at failure (τf), i.e. the maximum shear resistance. Mohr circle of effective stress at failure - the Mohr circle representing the state of effective stress at failure, the diameter defined by points representing the major and minor effective principal stress at failure. Effective shear strength parameters - the slope and intercept of the Mohr-Coulomb effective stress envelope drawn to a set of Mohr circles of effective stress at failure. Angle of shear resistance in terms of effective stress (ø’) - the slope of the Mohr-Coulomb effective stress envelope. Cohesion intercept in terms of effective stress (c’) - the intercept of the Mohr-Coulomb effective stress envelope [NOTE The symbols f9and c9 are collectively referred to as the effective shear strength parameters.] Pore pressure coefficients A and B - changes in total stresses applied to a specimen when no drainage is permitted produces changes in the pore pressure. Pore pressure coefficient at failure (Af) - the value of the coefficient A at failure. stress path parameters (s’, t’) - the stress path parameters (in terms of effective stress) c. Summary of Part 8 Two methods of carrying out the compression test are given, which are as follows (a) The consolidated-undrained triaxial compression test with measurement of pore pressure. This test gives the undrained shear strength of a specimen subjected to a known initial effective stress, and the pore pressure changes during shear from which the pore pressure coefficient A can be derived. From a set of tests the effective shear strength parameters at failure, c’ and ø’, can be derived. (b) The consolidated-drained triaxial compression test with measurement of volume change. This test gives the drained shear strength, and volume change characteristics during shear, of a specimen from which the pore water is allowed to drain freely. From a set of tests the drained effective shear strength parameters at failure, c’ and ø’, can be derived. For many soils other than heavily-overconsolidated clays, the parameters c’ and ø’, determined from the two types of test, can be considered to be identical for most practical purposes, and are not differentiated in this standard. Both types of test are carried out in three stages: (1) saturation (clause 5); (2) consolidation (clause 6); (3) compression (clause 7 or 8). The first two stages saturate the specimen and bring it to the desired state of effective stress for the compression test, and are common to both types of test. The compression stage of the consolidated-undrained test is described in clause 7, and that of the consolidated-drained test in clause 8. The procedures described relate to strain-controlled apparatus for compression in a mechanical load frame, and a detachable triaxial cell. Alternatively, hydraulic triaxial cells may be used, provided that the essential principles are maintained (in which case the procedures may differ in detail). Consolidated-undrained triaxial compression test with measurement of pore pressure - In this test, during the compression stage, the cell pressure is maintained constant while the specimen is sheared at a constant rate of axial deformation (strain-controlled compression) until failure occurs. No drainage is permitted and therefore the moisture content remains constant during compression. The resulting changes in pore pressure are usually measured at the base of the specimen, and the rate of axial deformation is applied slowly enough to ensure adequate equalization of excess pore pressures. Consolidated-drained triaxial compression test with measurement of volume change - In this test, during the compression stage, the cell pressure is maintained constant while the specimen is sheared at a constant rate of axial deformation (strain-controlled compression) until failure occurs. Free drainage of pore water from the specimen is allowed. The test is run slowly enough to ensure that pore pressure changes due to shearing are negligible. The required rate of strain can be much slower than that for a consolidated-undrained test on a similar specimen under similar conditions. Since the pore pressure remains virtually constant, the effective confining pressure does not vary. The volume of pore fluid draining out of or into the specimen is measured by means of the volume change indicator in the back pressure line, and is equal to the change in volume of the specimen during shear. Pore pressure can be monitored at the base as a check on the efficacy of drainage. The test procedure described in 8.2 to 8.6 relates to a saturated specimen in the triaxial cell which has been brought to the required effective stress by consolidation in accordance with clause 6.
3.1.9 Part 9. In-situ Test The methods described in this Part include major additions and have been formed into groups, according to either the purpose of the test or the mode of execution. These groups are as follows: Summary of Part 9 The methods described in this Part of this standard have been arranged in groups either according to the purpose of the test or the mode of execution. These groups are as follows. (a) Five methods for the determination of the in-situ density. (b) Three methods for the determination of penetration resistances. (c) Four methods for the determination of the vertical deformation and strength characteristics. (d) Two methods for the determination of the in-situ corrosivity characteristics. In-situ density tests This clause specifies five methods for determining the in-situ density of soil, four of which use the direct measurements of mass and volume, the choice of which depends upon the type of material, and one method uses gamma rays. The last named also includes the measurement of moisture content with nuclear gauges that combine both facilities. Sand replacement method suitable for fine- and medium-grained soils (small pouring cylinder method). This method covers the determination in-situ of the density of natural or compacted fine- and medium-grained soils for which a 115 mm diameter sand-pouring cylinder is used in conjunction with replacement sand (see note 1). The method is applicable to layers not exceeding 150 mm in thickness (see note 2). Sand replacement method suitable for fine-, medium- and coarse-grained soils (large pouring cylinder method). This method covers the determination in situ of the density of natural or compacted soil containing coarse- grained particles which make the test described in 2.1 difficult to perform. It is an alternative to that test for fine- and medium-grained soils and should be used instead of that test for layers exceeding 150 mm, but not exceeding 250 mm in thickness (see note). With granular materials having little or no cohesion, particularly when they are wet, there is a danger of errors in measurement of density by this method. These errors are caused by the slumping of the sides of the excavated density hole and always result in an over-estimation of density. Water replacement method suitable for coarse-grained soils. This method covers the determination in-situ of the density of natural or compacted coarse-grained soil using a circular density ring on the ground surface and a flexible plastics sheet to retain water to determine the volume of an excavated hole. The method is used in coarse and very coarse soils when the other methods for determining the field density are unsuitable because the volume excavated would be unrepresentative. Core cutter method for cohesive soils free from coarse-grained material. This method covers the determination of the density of natural or compacted soil in-situ. NOTE This method may be less accurate than the sand replacement method test (see 2.2) and is not recommended unless speed is essential, or unless the soil is well compacted but sufficiently soft for the cutter to be driven easily. In-situ penetration tests This clause describes methods for determining three different types of penetration resistance of soil. All are empirical methods of testing the strength of soil at various depths below a particular location. The cone penetration test and the dynamic probing test are usually carried out independently of the borehole and other tests; the former being the more precise while the latter uses much simpler apparatus. The standard penetration test is for use in a borehole. Determination of the penetration resistance using the fixed 60° cone and friction sleeve (static cone penetration test CPT). This method covers the determination of the resistance of soils in situ to the continuous penetration at a slow uniform rate of a series of push rods having a cone at the base, and measuring continuously or at selected depth intervals the penetration resistance of the cone and, if required, the local friction resistance on a friction sleeve and pore pressure in the vicinity of the cone and sleeve. This method requires the use of a penetrometer tip with electrical sensors as defined in 3.1.2.4, thereby permitting continuous readings and an instant read-out. This is not intended to prohibit the use of the older type of mechanical penetrometer, where readings are taken through inner push rods thrusting against load capsules mounted on the thrust machine. It should be noted that the mechanical penetrometer does not give precisely the same readings as would be obtained by the electrical penetrometer tip, which is now specified as standard. In submitting reports, the type of penetrometer and penetrometer tip which has been used should always be given. Determination of the dynamic probing resistance using the 90° cone (dynamic probing DP). This method covers the determination of the resistance of soils in situ to the intermittent penetration of a 90° cone when driven dynamically in a standard manner. A continuous record is provided with respect to depth of the resistance of the cone in contrast to the standard penetration test (see 3.3), but there are no sampling facilities. Two different sizes of apparatus are specified. Dynamic probing can be used to detect soft layers and to locate strong layers, e.g. in cohesionless soils for end-bearing piles. The results of dynamic probing should normally be checked by boring in conjunction with sampling, particularly with respect to the competence of a bearing stratum. When interpreting the test results obtained in cohesive soils and in soils at depth, caution has to be taken when friction along the extension rods becomes significant. Determination of the penetration resistance using the split-barrel sampler (the standard penetration test SPT). This method covers the determination of the resistance to soils at the base of a borehole to the penetration of the split-barrel sampler when driven dynamically in a standard manner, and the obtaining of a disturbed sample for identification purposes. The test is used mainly in sands. NOTE The test can also be used in gravels or gravelly sand in which case the drive shoe may be replaced by a solid 60° cone, but when this accessory is used in any type of ground the result should be reported separately from the standard test using the open drive shoe, and with the preface: SPT(C). In-situ vertical deformation and strength tests This clause describes four methods for investigating in-situ strength and load settlement characteristics of soil. The plate loading test (4.1) and the shallow pad maintained load test (4.2) are particularly suited for the design of foundations or footings for buildings where it is considered that the mass characteristics of the soil would differ significantly from the results of laboratory tests, or where more precise values of settlement are required. The in-situ CBR (4.3) is generally concerned only with pavement design and the control of subgrade construction of soils with a maximum particle size not exceeding 20 mm. The determination of the vane shear strength of weak intact cohesive soils is described in 4.4. Determination of the vertical deformation and strength characteristics of soil by the plate loading test. This method covers the determination of the vertical deformation and strength characteristics of soil in situ by assessing the force and amount of penetration with time when a rigid plate is made to penetrate the soil. Uses are to evaluate the ultimate bearing capacity, the shear strength and deformation parameters of the soil beneath the plate without entailing the effects of sample disturbance. The method may be carried out at the ground surface, in pits, trenches or adits, and at depth in the bottom of a borehole. Determination of the settlement characteristics of soil for lightly loaded foundations by the shallow pad maintained load test. This method covers the determination of the settlement characteristics of soil in-situ by a test in which a constant load is applied to the ground for a period of several weeks through a pad located at shallow depth. The test is suitable for estimating the settlement caused by structures with lightly loaded shallow foundations built on filled ground and on some types of soft natural soils where the weakest ground in the profile is immediately beneath the test pad. The test should make it possible to estimate the settlement that will occur due to an applied foundation load. However, it should be recognized that there may be other causes of settlement besides weaker formations at depth, e.g. with uncompacted fills settlement may occur due to self-weight, collapse compression due to a rising water table and decay of organic matter. The test is solely confined to providing an indication of the magnitude of settlement of the ground immediately beneath the test pad. NOTE It is important that the test results are not considered to be the sole evidence on which to base the design of the foundations of the proposed structure. Precautions should be taken by means of borings or pits to ensure that the test area is representative of the weakest part of the site, also that weaker ground does not exist within the zone of influence beneath the complete structure. Determination of the in-situ California Bearing Ratio (CBR). This method covers the determination of the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of a soil tested in situ, with a selected overburden pressure, by causing a cylindrical plunger to penetrate the soil at a given rate and comparing the relationship between force and penetration into the soil to that for a standard material. At certain values of penetration the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is defined in the form of a percentage, as the ratio of the force exerted on the soil to a standard force that would be exerted on a specified crushed rock compacted and confined in a given manner. The CBR test may also be carried out in the laboratory on soil in a mould (see clause 7 of BS 1377-4:1990). On account of the plunger size the test is appropriate only to material having a maximum particle size not exceeding 20 mm. Hence where material of this size or larger is possibly present beneath the test surface this should be checked after making the test and reported. Determination of in-situ vane shear strength of weak intact cohesive soils. This method covers the determination in situ of the shear strength of weak intact cohesive soils using a vane of cruciform section, which is subjected to a torque of sufficient magnitude to shear the soil. The test is suitable for very soft to firm intact saturated cohesive soils. In-situ corrosivity tests This clause of the standard describes two methods for determining in-situ the likelihood of underground corrosion of buried metal structures. The results of these tests should be interpreted by a specialist. Determination in-situ of the apparent resistivity of soil. This method covers the determination of the electrical resistivity of soil tested in situ for a selected depth or a range of depths. (See note 1.) The test is used to assess the corrosivity of the soil towards various metals. Resistivity is the electrical resistance of an element of unit cross-sectional area and unit length. Its value indicates the relative capability of the soil to carry electric currents. Generally the severity of corrosion decreases as the apparent resistivity rises. The method consists of passing a current (see note 2) into the ground between two electrodes (A, B) and measuring the consequent apparent resistivity between another two electrodes (C, D) situated at equi-distant spacings (AC, CD and DB) and collinear between electrodes A and B. This arrangement corresponds to the conventional “Wenner”, equally spaced, four electrode configuration. Two separate measurements of the resistivity are made for a test at each selected depth with the electrodes set at approximately right angles for the two measurements. When testing in borrow areas one measurement may be made with the electrodes in the same line as the direction of the test locations and another with the electrodes set at approximately right angles to the line of tests. Determination in-situ of the redox potential of soil. This method covers the determination of the redox potential (reduction/oxidation) of soil tested in situ at a selected depth by measuring the electro-chemical potential between a platinum electrode and a saturated calomel reference electrode. The test is used to indicate the likelihood of microbial corrosion of metals by sulphate-reducing bacteria which can proliferate in anaerobic conditions. The redox potential is principally related to the oxygen in the soil, and a high value indicates that a relatively large amount is present. Anaerobic microbial corrosion can occur if a soil has a low oxygen content and hence a low redox potential.
In-situ density tests. The hand-scoop method has been deleted and substituted by a new test for coarse-grained soils based on a water-replacement method. Determination of in-situ density of fine-grained, medium-grained, and coarse-grained soils by attenuation of gamma rays has been added which includes moisture content determination. In-situ penetration tests. The split-barrel sampler method has been revised to conform more closely to international practice. Two other test methods have been added as follows. a) Determination of the penetration resistance using fixed 60° cone and friction sleeve (the static cone test CPT). b) Determination of the dynamic probing resistance using a 90° cone (dynamic probing, DP). In-situ vertical deformation and strength tests. Three test methods have been added as follows. a) Determination of the vertical deformation and strength characteristics of soil by the plate loading test. b) Determination of the settlement characteristics of soil for lightly loaded foundations by the shallow pad maintained-load test. c) Determination of the in-situ California Bearing Ratio (CBR). In-situ corrosivity tests. Two test methods are given as follows. a) Determination of the in-situ apparent resistivity of soil. b) Determination of the in-situ redox potential of the soil. |
UBBL Part 5 - Structural Requirements
The followings are comments for structural requirements as per Part 5 of the UBBL versus in-place British Standards. Part 5 By-law 53: Building materials Paragraph (1) Any material used – (a) In the erection of a building; (b) In the structural alteration or extension of a building; (c) In the execution of works of the installation of fittings, being works or fittings to which any provision of these By-laws applies or (d) For the backfilling of any excavation on a site in connection with any building or works or fittings to which any provision of these By-laws applies shall be (aa) of a suitable nature and quality in relation to the purpose and condition in which they are used; (bb) adequately mixed or prepared; and (cc) applied, used or fixed so as to adequately perform the functions for which they are designed. Paragraph (2) The use of any material or any method of mixing or preparing materials or of applying, using or fixing materials, which conforms with a Standard specification or Code of Practice prescribing the quality of material or standards of workmanship shall be deemed to be sufficiently compliance with the requirements of paragraph (1) of by-law 3 if the use of the material or method is appropriate for the purpose and conditions in which it used. Part 5 By-law 54: General Requirements of Loading Paragraph (2), (a) dead loads shall be calculated in accordance with BSCP 3 Chap. V. Part 1 or as provided hereinafter in this Part: (BS6399 Part 1) (b) imposed loads shall be calculated in accordance with BSCP 3 Chap. V. Part 1 or as provided hereinafter in this Part: (BS6399 Part 1) Provided that, if any actual imposed load will exceed or is likely to exceed the load so calculated, that actual load shall be substituted for the load so calculated; and (c) wind loads shall be calculated in accordance with BSCP 3 Chap V. Part 2: (BS6399 Part 2 or MS1553) Provided that- (aa) in no case shall the factor S3 be taken as less than 1; and (bb) if a building falls outside the range of those which that code gives forces and pressure coefficients, values shall be used which are appropriate in relation to that building, having regard to its construction, size proportions, shape, profile and surface characteristics. Paragraph (3), Advice on appropriate wind velocities applicable to a particular locality to which the building is to be located shall, whenever possible be obtained from the local meteorological office. (BS6399 Part 2 or MS1553) Part 5 By-law 55: Dead and Imposed Loads Paragraph (2) The dead and imposed loads provided hereinafter shall be in addition to and not in substitution of provision relating to – (a) loads on road bridges; (b) loads on rail bridges; (c) loads due to winds; (d) loads due to seismic forces; (e) loads due to explosions; (f) loads on structures subject to internal pressure from their contents such as bunkers, silos and water tanks; (g) loads incidental to construction; (h) loads due to lifts and escalators; (i) loads due to machinery vibration (except those due to some gantry cranes); (j) loads due to thermal effects; and (k) test loads. Part 5 By-law 56: Dead loads calculated from weights of material used Paragraph (1): Dead loads shall be calculated from unit weight given in BS 648 or from the actual known weights of the material used. Paragraph (2): Typical values for commonly used materials are laid out in the Fourth Schedule to these By-laws. Part 5 By-law 57: Weight of partitions … To provide for partitions where their positions are not shown on the plans, the beams and the floor slabs where these are capable of effective lateral distribution of the load, shall be designed to carry, in addition to other loads, a uniformly distributed load per square meter of not less than one third of the weight per meter run of the finished partitions, but not less than 1kN/m² if the floor is used for office purposes. (BS6399 Part 1 Clause 5.1.4) Part 5 By-law 58: Contents of tanks and other receptacles No comment Part 5 By-law 59: Imposed floor loads Paragraph (1) The loads appropriate to the different uses to which the parts of a building or structure may be put as specified in the Fourth Schedule to these By-laws Part 5 By-law 60: Mechanical Stacking Where there is the possibility of the use of mechanical stacking machines, such as fork lift trucks, special provision shall be made in the design of the floors. Part 5 By-law 61: Imposed loads on ceiling, skylights and similar structures Paragraph (1) The support of ceilings (other than false ceilings), ribs of skylights, frames and covering (other than glazing) of access hatches and similar structures shall be designed for the following loads: (a) 0.25kN/m² distributed uniformly all over the whole are of area supported; and (b) 0.9kN concentrated over a length of 125mm or, in the case of coverings, over a square of 125mm side so placed as to produce maximum stresses in the affected members. (BS6399 Part 1 Clause 5.2) Part 5 By-law 62: Reduction in total imposed Floor loads Paragraph (1) No comment. Table 1 of By-laws is similar to Table 2 of BS6399 Part 1 Paragraph (2) …For factories and workshops design for imposed load of 5kN/m² or more, the reduction shown in the Table 1 may be taken provided that the loading assumed is not less than it would have been if all floors had been designed for 5kN/m² without reduction. Paragraph (3) Where a single span of a beam or girder supports not less than 46m² of floor at one general level, the imposed load may in the design of the beam or girder be reduced by 5% for each 46m² supported, subject to a maximum reduction of 25%. This reduction, or that given in Table 1, whichever is greater, may be taken into account in the design of columns of other types of member supporting such as beam. Paragraph (4) No reduction shall be made for any plant or machinery which is specifically allowed for or for buildings for storage purposes, warehouses, garages and those office areas which are used for storage and filling purposes. Para 2 to Para 4, refer to Part 5 By-law 63: Imposed roof loads Paragraph (2) On flat roofs and sloping roofs up to and including 10⁰, where access (in addition to that necessary for cleaning and repair) is provided to the roof, allowance shall be made for an imposed load of 1.5kN/m² measured on plan, or a load of 1.8kN concentrated on a square with 300mm side, measured in the plane of the roof, whichever produces the greater stresses in the part of the roof under consideration. (BS6399 Part 3 Clause 4.2) Paragraph (3) On flat roofs and sloping roof up to and including 10⁰ where no access is provided to the roof except for maintenance, allowance shall be made for an imposed load of 0.25kN/m² measured in the plane of the roof, or a vertical load of 0.9kN concentrated on a square with 125mm side, measure in the plane of the roof, whichever produces the greater stresses in the part of the roof under consideration. Paragraph (4) On surfaces where accumulation of rain is possible the loads due to such accumulation of water and the imposed loads for the roofs as given above shall be considered separately and the more critical of the two shall be adopted in the design. Paragraph (5) On roofs with a slope greater than 10⁰, and with no access provide to the roof (other than that necessary for cleaning and repair), the following imposed loads shall be provided: (a) for a roof-slope of 30⁰ or less 0.25kN/m² measured on plane or a vertical load of 0.9kN concentrated on a square with a 300mm side, whichever produces the greater stress. (b) for a roof slope of 75⁰ or more no allowance is necessary. For Roof slopes between 30⁰ and 70⁰, the imposed loads to be allowed for may be obtained by linear interpolation between 0.25kN/m² for a 30⁰ roof slope and nil for a 75⁰ roof slope. Part 5 By-law 64: Curved roofs The imposed load on a curved roof shall be calculated by dividing the roof into not less than five equal segments and then calculating the load of each, appropriate to its mean slope, in accordance with paragraph (2) and (3) of by-law 63. (BS6399 Part 3 Clause 4.4) Part 5 By-law 65: Roof Covering To provide for loads incidental to maintenance, all roof coverings, other than glazing, at a slope less than 45⁰ shall be capable of carrying a load of 0.9kN concentrated on any square with a 125mm side, measured in the plane of the roof. (BS6399 Part 3 Clause 4.6) Part 5 By-law 66: Internal suspended loads on primary structural members No comment. Part 5 By-law 67: Amount of suspended load Any panel point of the lower chord of such roof trusses or any point of such other primary structural members supporting roofs over garages, manufacturing or storage floors shall be capable of carrying safely a suspended concentrated load of not less than 9.0kN in addition to the imposed loads on the roof. Part 5 By-law 68: Dynamic loading Deleted in BS6399 and refer to Annex A and Table 1. Part 5 By-law 69: Crane gantry girders Not detailed on type of cranes. Refer to BS 2573 Design of Cranes Part 5 By-law 70: Parapets and Balustrades The design criteria changed. Refer to Clause 10 and Clause 12 of BS6399 Part 5 By-law 71: Vehicle barriers for car parks Refer to BS 6399 Part 1 Clause 11 and Clause 12 Part 5 By-law 72: Basement walls and floors No detailed description. Refer to BS 6399 Part 1 Clause 12 Part 5 By-law 73: Foundations Paragraph (2) The requirements of paragraph (1) shall be deemed to be satisfied if the foundations of a building are constructed in accordance with the relevant recommendation of the DSCP 2004 Foundation. (BS8004 CP for Foundations) Part 5 By-law 74: Foundations of Buildings not exceeding four storeys IF the foundations form part of a building other than a factory or storage building, having not more than 4 storeys the requirements of by-law 73 shall be deemed to be satisfied if such foundations are constructed in accordance with BSCP 101 0 Foundations and Substructures for Non-Industrial buildings not more than 4 storeys. Refer to BS 8103 Structural design of low-rise buildings, Part 1. Part 5 By-law 75: Reinforced concrete foundations The requirements of by-law 73 shall be deemed to be satisfied as to such part of any foundations as in constructed of reinforced concrete if the work complies with BSCP 10 – The structural use of the concrete, BSCP114, BSCP115 or BSCO 116, where applicable. BSCP-110 to BS8110. BSCP114 to BS8110. Part 5 By-law 76: Strip Foundation No detailed description. Refer to BS 8004 Clause 3.2.5. Part 5 By-law 77: Brick Footings Overrule. BS8004 Foundation, Clause 3.2.4 Pad footing. For buildings such as low rise dwellings and lightly framed structures, pad foundations may be of unreinforced concrete provided that the angle of spread of load from the pier or baseplate to the outer edge of the ground bearing does not exceed one (vertical) in one (horizontal) and that the stresses in the concrete due to bending and shear do not exceed those in Table 11 of Civil Engineering Code of Practice No. 2 1951. Where brick or masonry foundations have been used, the same rules apply with permissible stresses as given in Civil Engineering Code of Practice No. 2. For buildings other than low rise and lightly framed structures, it is customary to use reinforced concrete foundations. Part 5 By-law 78: Foundation below inverts of drains No comment. Part 5 By-law 79: Foundation under external and party walls No comment. Part 5 By-law 80: Structure above Foundations Refer to Eurocodes or other basic code of practice for design. |
General Tips on Technical Paper 1 & 2
The technical papers are far from the actual exercise in weighing your ability as a great engineer with in-depth knowledge in various disciplines and good in troubleshooting technical issues; instead it is a true test to see if you are able to perform accordingly and diligently as a chartered engineer. I was wrong for I actually think the evaluation is something similar to ICE format which emphasizes on trouble shooting as a sound civil engineer. Not in this case and not within the provided time limit. Therefore, it is best for all senior engineers to prepare themselves with the basic of engineering design which can be executed manually. The drawbacks for many experienced engineers in this exam will be the level of complacent we have enjoyed utilizing automated software in our daily routine work. Some lucky ones who were stuck with Microsoft Excel design spreadsheet benefited a lot by making various cross referencing to standard specification or code of practices; while software operators are less fortunate where most of the value are available or set to default. In order to excel in this exam, you have to go back to the basic; manual calculation and start to understand how values affect the calculation or the choice of values to be use in design. What are the possible questions for technical papers? For Paper 1, the question are usually straight forward by using a single formula or the most three formulas to generate an answer. Apart from that, the question involves normative referencing between tables or illustrations within code of practices. Each question should be answered below 3 minutes average and it is best to predict or spot question which requires you to calculate within a time period of 5 minutes. For some reasons, certain objective questions are statements in regards to code or practice or standard specifications which can be answered within 30 seconds, and therefore i kindly reckon the longest question would be around 4 to 5 minutes for a full calculation. As for Paper 2, the questions would involved design works. Each question will allow you 40 minutes or so to complete the main question and subsequent sub-questions. In this case, try to do exercise involving design work which will take you around 60 minutes to complete. The gist to such recommendation is due to your slow speed in making cross referencing. When prepping for Paper 2, always try to time the allowance you have to make cross referencing as you continue practicing answered fresh graduate level of questions. During 2016 exam, most of Paper 2 questions involved geotechnical engineering and soil mechanics, and remainings are on theory of structures and reinforced concrete design. For 2017, it comes as a surprised where there is only 1 geotechnical question, 2 questions combining theory of structure and reinforced concrete design as well as 2 civil works questions (sewerage and water reticulation, if i recall correctly). The geotechnical question was divided into two sub-questions; earthwork process - cut and fill, and bored pile rock socket calculation. It is surprising that questions for theory of structure and reinforced concrete design are something from your third year and fourth year degree program. You don't need to bring a lot of reference books and codes of practice, it is sufficient to bring what you inherited from your degree program; nevertheless, it is important your you to mark your processes in designing based on the section of the codes of practice. |
Part B - Examination scopes
The candidates who are sitting for the Civil Engineering are expected to have sufficient knowledge and understanding of the latest relevant Acts, Regulations, By-Laws, Standards, Codes of Practices, good engineering practices in Malaysia. There will be questions set on the application of engineering judgement and solving engineering issues in the local practice. Proficiency and good working knowledge and experience of Civil engineering practice in Malaysia covering general matter, geotechnical works, structural works and civil works as follows: (A) GENERAL MATTER (A1) Procurement & Contract (Pre and Post) administration (A2) Regulatory practice and submission procedure for civil engineers (a) "Street, Drainage & Building Act" and the Uniform Building By Law Malaysia (UBBL) where it pertains to the civil engineer as: (i) submitting engineer for purely civil works; and (ii) submitting engineer for structural works. (b) Earth Works By-Laws (c) Submission procedures for planning approval, building plan and relevant Form Gs and Form F for Certificate for Completion and as: (i) submitting engineer for purely civil works; and (ii) submitting engineer for structural works. (d) Fire Services Act where it pertains to Civil engineer submission. (e) Environmental Quality Act introductory level and only on those sections of the Act (or regulations) dealing with scheduled waste discharge and air quality. (B) GEOTECHNICAL WORKS (B1) Soil Investigation Works (a) Planning of subsurface investigation field works and sampling For filling (embankment or platform) in soft ground. For cut and fill in hill-site development and roadworks on hilly terrain. For earthworks andfoundation (cut and fill} on good flat ground. For foundation design (shallow and deep foundation) in soft ground. For foundation design on hill-site. For foundation design in limestone area. (b) Planning of laboratory testing and interpretation of results Types of laboratory tests for items listed in B2 (a) above. Interpretation of laboratory tests for necessary soil and rock design parameters for items listed above. (B2) Earthworks (a) General Earthworks Determination of materials (acceptable materials vs unsuitable materials for filling or excavation). Compaction requirements. Construction control of filling at site (e.g. loose thickness, testing, filling layer by layer, no tipping etc.). Construction control of cutting at site (e.g. to cut from top, to turf within certain time, etc.). Erosion, sediment, control plan (ESCP). (b) Design of Earthworks for hill-site Selection of subsoil and rock parameters for analysis (e.g. shear strength, groundwater levels, etc.). Analysis and design of slope stability for cut and fill (e.g. type of analysis and factor of safety, etc.). Slope stabilization system. Earth retaining structure. (c) Design of Filling / Embankment on Soft Ground Selection of subsoil parameters for analysis (e.g. shear strength, stiffness and consolidation parameters). Analysis and design of slope stability for fill/embankment. Settlement analysis (e.g. immediate settlement, consolidation settlement, secondary compression, etc.). Ground treatment selection. Ground treatment analysis and design (commonly used vertical drains, geotextile, surcharging, etc.). (C) STRUCTURAL WORKS (C1) Statutory requirements for Structure by UBBL Loading requirements. Fire resistance requirements. (C2) Structural Analysis Wind loading. Sub-frame analysis. Moment distribution analysis. Lateral earth pressure. (C3) Foundation Design Pad and strip footings. Raft foundation. Pile cap - bending and truss analogy. Design of different types of piles. Design of earth retaining walls and basement walls. Design of sheet pile wall and other types of wall for basement construction. (C4) Reinforced Concrete Design Beam design - flexure, shear, span/depth ratios, crack width, curtailments, laps etc. Solid slab design - flexure, shear, span/depth ratios, curtailments, laps, etc. Flat slab design (with and without column head). Rectangular and circular column design - short and slender. Design of walls - braced and unbraced. (C5) Prestressed Concrete Single and multispan slab and beam design for both ultimate limit state and serviceability state. Prestressed concrete bridge beams (I, M, T, U and box beams). Prestressing strands – Creep, shrinkage, frictional losses, curvature, etc. (C6) Water Retaining Structure Slab and wall design subject to hydrostatic forces. Crack width control calculation. (C7) Structural Steel Design Beam section design. Column section design. Steel truss and frame analysis and design. Connection design by welding and bolting. Protective coating. Welding. (C8) Composite Steel Design Concrete slab and steel beam design. (D) CIVIL WORKS (D1) Water supply design to SPAN Guidelines External water supply for housing and building development. Water demand calculations. Pipe network analysis. Hydraulics calculations. (D2) Sewerage Design External sewerage for housing and building development. Population equivalent calculations. Sewer network calculations. Sewerage treatment plant design. Pumping station. (D3) Road and highway designs Design to JKR Arahan Teknik Horizontal and vertical curves for road alignment. Acceleration, deceleration lanes and junction design. Superelevation design. Areas & volumes for cuttings and embankments for earthworks. Road pavement design. Road signboard and marking. (D4) Drainage design (a) Design to Manual Baru Saliran Mesra Alam Malaysia (MSMA): (i) Hydrologic design Estimation of Design Rainstorm. (ii) Runoff Quantity Controls Detention. Retention. Rain Water Harvesting. (iii) Runoff Conveyance Roof and property drainage. Open drains. Pipe drains. Culverts and bridge crossings. (iv) Runoff Quality Controls Erosion and sediment control plans (ESCP). Gross pollutant trap. Oil separators. (b) Pumped Drainage (c) Sub-Soil Drainage |
Civil Engineering Paper 2 (Subjective Questions)
Q1. You are the infrastructure engineer for a 500 acre housing development scheme. What is your advice to the Developer, Planners and Architects in terms of requirements for drainage for the whole development? Q2. A 3-storey basement car park is to be built with an excavation of approximately 15.0m from the existing ground level. The water table is 1.0m below the existing ground level. You are required to provide a solution on the structural system for the retaining walls of the basement. |
Civil Engineering Paper 1 (Objective Questions)
Q1. From the appropriate Table in BS 8110 determine the bending moments of short span on a rectangular slab freely supported on all four sides (corners not held down) and subjected to a load of gk = 4 kN/m² and qk = 6 kN/m² , when lx = 3.0 m & ly = 3.75 m. A. 7.70 kNm B. 12.18 kNm C. 5.02 kNm D. 3.22 kNm E. 9.75 kNm Q2. Based on stress distribution in a semi-infinite elastic solid by the Boussinesq solution, what is the critical depth in which the increase in stresses is only about 10 percent of the applied stress on a square footing? This depth is usually the critical depth for settlement assessment of a footing. A. 0.5 times of footing width (0.5B) B. 2.0 times of footing width (2.0B) C. 5.0 times of footing width (5.0B) D. 10.0 times of footing width (10.0B) E. 15.0 times of footing width (15.0B) Q3. Which of the following statements are true for circular column? A. Minimum no. of bars is 8, size of bar is not less than 10 mm B. Minimum no. of bars is 8, size of bar is not less than 12 mm C. Minimum no. of bars is 6, size of bar is not less than 10 mm D. Minimum no. of bars is 6, size of bar is not less than 12 mm E. None of the above Q4. What is the minimum residual pressure head for an external hydrant system required by Bomba? A. 3.0m B. 7.5m C. 12.5m D. 10.0m E. 15.0m Q5. What is the fire resistance requirement of a concrete structure for an underground basement car-park? A. One hour B. Half an hour C. Two hours D. Three hours E. Four hours |